COUNTRY
PROFILE - SOUTH AFRICA
1. Physiography
Located on the southern
tip of Africa, the Republic of South Africa stretches between the longitude
from 17º to 33ºE and latitude of 22º to 35ºS. Namibia
bounds the country on the Northwest, while Botswana and Zimbabwe are located
in the North, Mozambique and Swaziland are on the Northeast. Lesotho,
a landlocked country, forms an enclave within the Republic of South Africa.
The South Atlantic and the Indian Oceans wash the relatively unindented
coastline some 2 800 km long, west and east respectively of
the longitude 20ºE. The Republic has nine provinces - Northern Province,
Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape Province, Western Cape Province,
North Cape Province, North West Province, Gauteng and Free State. The
total land area of the Republic of South Africa is 122 341 km2.
Topographically South
Africa may be divided into four zones, the Plateau, the Escarpment, the
folded Mountains and the Coastal Plain.
The Plateau, or High
Veldt, has the appearance of a tremendous plain, interrupted here and
there by small mountains. The Plateau, which comprises the major part
of South Africa, is elevated about 1 200 m above sea level,
rising to 1 800 m at the divide between the main drainage systems.
South of the divide the rivers drain into the Orange River flowing westwards.
The Limpopo is the main river north of the divide. It initially flows
northwest, then north and eventually drains into the Indian Ocean on the
eastern seaboard, as do the other long rivers of the north. Rivers rising
at the edge of the escarpment are comparatively short and steep, and have
formed deeply eroded canyons.
The escarpment varies
in appearance according to the elevation and erosion. The most spectacular
part is on the western border of KwaZulu-Natal, particularly on the Lesotho
and Free State borders.
The Folded Mountains
of the Western Cape Province separate two plateaux of lower elevation
of 460 m and 600 - 900 m respectively, forming a step-wise
approach to the central highlands.
The coastal plain
varies greatly in width. In the south it is virtually non-existent but
it widens on the western and eastern coasts.
According to the 1996 census, the total population of South Africa was
40,583,573. Out of the economically active population (aged 15 - 65 years)
of 13,785,493, a total of 9,113,847 (or 66,1%) are employed. Amongst the
employed, 814,350 (or 8.9%) are involved in agriculture, hunting, forestry
and fishing, of which 357,278 are considered to be skilled. The GNP in
South Africa was US$ 3160 in the year 1999.
2. Climate and
rainfall
Approximately 86%
of the area of the Republic of South Africa lies in the summer rainfall
area. A narrow belt along the southern coast, some 4 million ha in extent,
receives rain during all seasons. 13 million ha in the southern western
corner have a Mediterranean climate with winter rainfall and a dry summer.
The rainfall decreases
from east to west, from over 1 000 mm in the east to 50 - 100 mm
in the Namib and Namaqualand areas in the west. Barely one third of the
summer rainfall area receives more than 600 mm annual precipitation.
This amount is close to the lower limit for successful rainfed crop production.
An added agricultural hazard is the variable distribution of the rainfall,
both within a particular season and between seasons.
The low-lying eastern
coastal belt is hot and humid in summer. Because of the altitude, summer
temperatures on the high inland plateau are generally lower than could
be expected.
Winter temperatures
in the interior often drop to below zero and frost is common.
Evaporation throughout
most of South Africa is very high due to the semi-arid and arid conditions.
The loss by evaporation from open water surfaces exceeds by far the average
rainfall, ranging from 2 500 mm in the dry west to 1 500 mm
in the more humid temperate regions.
Irrigation is an important
factor in the production of permanent crops or in obtaining high yields
from field crops. However, despite the limitations imposed by soil conditions,
climate and topography, an outstanding characteristic of South African
farming is its remarkable diversity.
3. Land resources
The total area of
South Africa is 122,341,000 ha. Land use statistics are as follows:
| •
Land area 122 341 000 ha. |
|
•
Land used for agronomic purposes:
|
Rainfed
- 10,779,615 ha
Irrigated - 1,086, 358 ha |
| •
Land used for pasture crops: |
Rainfed
1,736,614 ha
Irrigated 209,351 ha |
| •
Natural extensive grazing areas: |
83,928,062 |
| •
Forest and woodland: |
1,179,000
ha |
| •
Other land: |
23,422,000
ha |
Only 14% (17 million
ha) of the total area of South Africa is suitable for rainfed crop production
and a mere 3% of this area is high potential land. The area under forestry
and peri-urban smallholdings accounts for some 3 million ha of the better
soils, therefore the theoretical area for horizontal expansion is limited
to some 200 000 ha. The soil mantle is highly complex and diverse
with more than 70 soil forms. The wide range of soils in South Africa
arose largely due to various soil-forming factors which depend on parent
material, climate and topography.
The size of holdings
is estimated to vary as follows:
| Foodplots |
<0.25
ha |
| Small-scale |
0.5
– 10 ha |
Medium-
to large-scale
|
>20
ha |
4. Water resources,
irrigation and drainage
The average rainfall
of South Africa is just over half of the world average. The rainfall is
strongly seasonal and highly irregular in occurrence. As a consequence
of the uneven rainfall distribution and the topography, more than 60%
of the river flow arises from only 20% of the area. It is estimated that
9% of the country’s precipitation finds its way as runoff into rivers
and streams. The total internal renewable surface water resources are
approximately 50 x 109m3/a, the maximum yield is 33.3 x 109m3/a
and storage capacity of about 27 x 109m3/a has been created
by construction of dams. Based on the present trends in water use and
population growth, South Africa is expected to reach the limits of its
economically usable, fresh water resources by the year 2030. Water requirements
for irrigation are estimated at 10.7 x 109 m3/a or 53%
of total water requirements of 20 x 109m3/a during 1996. In
addition, the maximum annual yield of groundwater is 5.4 x 109m3
of which 2 x 109m3 is exploited and 80% is used for irrigation.
The area under irrigation in 1996 was 1.3 million ha with a potential
for expansion of a further 200 000 ha, given the available water
resources. Included in this total irrigated area is an area of between
50 000 - 100 000 ha which is used for foodplot
and smallholder farming on a large number of irrigation schemes. Of the
current area under irrigation, 86.5% is classified as very suitable and
suitable (class 1 and 2 soils).
5. Irrigation and
Drainage
The distribution of
irrigation capacity as in 1998 was that 15,000 medium and large-scale
commercial farmers irrigated around 1.3 million hectares divided into
:
- 550,000 ha
- Private schemes developed by owners to extract water directly from
weirs, boreholes and farm dams; and for which there is no water charge
at present.
- 400,000 ha
- Irrigation board schemes which are privately managed but frequently
were developed with Government grants and subsidised loans. In future
these schemes will be managed by water user associations (WUAs).
- 350,000 ha
- Government schemes which were built and operated by the Government.
Operating costs are charged to farmers at a subsidised rate. The membership
of these schemes will be transferred to WUAs also in due course.
- 75,000 ha
- Distributed among 40 000 small-scale farmers. These schemes are
operating below capacity and will be handed over to WUAs a small hectarage
of micro-scale schemes with gardens and community plots.
Water used for production
of crops, industry, horticulture, pasture and forage crops. Most of the
crops are also grown in smallholder agriculture. Stabilisation of variable
rainfall through irrigation is conspicuously more important for high income
crops such as potatoes, vegetables, grapes, fruit and tobacco. Although
grain and oilseed crops can be effectively grown under rainfed conditions,
they will remain part of crop combinations under irrigation for production
of seed and as rotational crops to maintain soil productivity. Pastures
and forages form an important component of the fodder flow programme for
dairying and sustain extensive livestock production in arid zones.
In all the irrigated
areas to the extent of 6 to 26% of soils have become waterlogged and salt-affected.
The extent of the problem is noteworthy because except one province, the
area with high water tables and salinity levels is more than the area
of risky soils (class 3 soils).
Brief history of
irrigation development
Irrigation development
in South Africa can be divided into three broad phases. It must, however,
be emphasized that these phases overlap, as do the involvement of private
and public organisations who have undertaken the development:
Phase 1: Individual
diversion schemes
In the period up to
1875, water resource development for irrigation was done on private initiative.
Small-scale utilization was undertaken without government assistance.
This first phase of individual weir-diversion or pump schemes is characterized
by a subsistence economy; limited and distant markets; and little incentives
for capital investment. Whereever natural circumstances were favourable,
water was abstracted from rivers.
Phase 2 : Co-operative
flood diversion schemes
An active policy with
the objective to promote irrigation started in the then Cape Colony. A
twofold strategy of obligatory collaboration between producers, and provisions
to grant unsubsidized loans for individual or co-operative weir-diversion
and flood irrigation schemes, followed as in the second phase. This was
facilitated by means of legislation promulgated in 1877, which is accepted
as the beginning of modern irrigation in South Africa. However, development
of co-operative flood schemes was slow. Although measures were taken to
make loans more attractive, irrigation development only gained momentum
after 1906, following an economic improvement brought about by the demand
for ostrich feathers as a fashion article. Ostriches are adapted to a
dry climate and require permanent pastures such as lucerne under irrigation.
The considerable expansion of co-operative flood irrigation schemes was
of short duration, mainly because of declining markets between 1914 and
1916. This coincided with a severe drought and all the land was not cultivated,
which culminated in an inability to repay irrigation loans.
Phase 3 : Public
storage schemes
At the beginning of
the third phase it was explicitly recognized that unreliable rainfall
and variable river flow necessitates water storage for regular irrigation
of crops. A range of field, industrial and horticultural crops such as
wheat, tobacco, cotton and citrus were included. The aspiration to store
flood waters and the expected ability of farmers to finance capital expenditure
due to improved markets for staple crops, led to a change in policy during
1920. Storage was specifically considered essential on co-operative flood
schemes already established or in the process for full water application.
In addition, unused potential could be harnessed through water storage
in summer rainfall areas for use for supplementary irrigation during critical
growth periods.
Problem experienced was the low population in relation to the area irrigated.
It was realized that irrigation schemes cannot succeed without irrigators
or people on the land. This led to the strategy of establishing settlers
on co-operative schemes and impoverished people on the government initiated
irrigation settlements. In view of the continued inability of settlers
to repay irrigation loans, the financing strategy was changed to writing
off loans, partial subsidization of private and co-operative schemes and
total subsidization of public schemes.
The development of
storage schemes was backed by the broad objective of utilization of water
resources for future agricultural development and prosperity of society.
These phases of irrigation
development are linked with the phases of economic development: Private
irrigation schemes were dominant during the agricultural phase; co-operative
schemes were implemented during the agricultural-mining phase; and government
settlement schemes below public storage dams coincide with the agricultural-mining-industrial
phase.
As anticipated, the emphasis in water policy gradually shifted away from
irrigation towards industrial development. This is illustrated by replacement
of the Irrigation and Water Conservation Act of 1912 with the Water Act
of 1956 and change of functions and name of the Department of Irrigation
to the Department of Water Affairs.
Statistics
relating to irrigation
Year |
Total
area irrigated (ha) |
1910 |
231
362 |
1924 |
318
767 |
1965 |
736
932 |
1996 |
1
290 132 |
2000 |
1
300 000 |
Policies for Water
Resources Development
Following the democratic
elections in 1994 a total reform of water policy and water legislation
was undertaken. A completely new National Water Act was proclaimed in
South Africa on October 1, 1998. Key elements and principles of the new
Act are:
- The water resources
in South Africa are a national asset;
- National Government
will act as the custodian of the nation’s water resources.
- All water in the
water cycle, be it surface or groundwater, will be treated as part of
the common resource.
- Water required
to meet basic human needs and to maintain environmental sustainability
will be guaranteed as a right. This will be known as the Reserve.
- The legitimate
requirements of neighbouring countries will have priority over uses
other than the Reserve.
- Uses other than
the Reserve will be recognised only if they are beneficial in the public
interest.
- The allocation
of water will have the objective of achievement of equitable and sustainable
economic and social development.
- Investments in
infrastructure for water use, made by the user, will be taken into consideration
when water allocations are made.
- The riparian system
of allocation of water, in which riparian land has a right to use water,
is being abolished.
- Water user allocations
are no longer permanent, but will be given for a reasonable period.
- The efficient use
and the conservation of water will be promoted by the Act.
The main points on
the action agenda, which can be highlighted, are as follows :
- Achieving policy
goals of social equity, economic efficiency, financial and environmental
sustainability.
- Recognizing existing
lawful water use, or in legal terms, water use which is “beneficial
in the public interest”.
- Phasing out subsidies
and recovering costs directly or indirectly from beneficiaries.
- Establishing black
smallholders to improve household food security and reduce poverty.
- Implementing water
conservation and demand management strategies.
- Registering all
existing lawful water use, to enable the Department to manage water
resources, to ensure fair share allocation, to protect the environment
and to charge for water use.
- Issuing licences
for water use, starting with the most water stressed areas.
6. ICID and South
Africa
South Africa joined
the ICID family in 1992 and has been actively associating itself with
ICID activities in Africa as well as at the international level. The 51st
IEC meeting was held in Cape Town in October 2000. The current Chairman
of the South African National Committee on Irrigation and Drainage (SANCID)
is Mr. Felix Britz Reinders. Mr David S van der Merwe (1997-2000) and
Mr. Felix Britz Reinders (2005-2008) were Vice Presidents of ICID. SANCID
is being actively represented in 19 workbodies of ICID.
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